The MP-IDSA Fellow’s Seminar presentation by Dr. Abhishek Mishra, Associate Fellow, MP-IDSA, on “Evolution of African Maritime Security: Imperatives, Governance and Challenges” was held on 29 February 2024. It was chaired by Vice Admiral Satish Kumar Namdeo Ghormade, PVSM, AVSM, NM (Retd.), former Vice Chief of Naval Staff. The External Discussants for the paper were Commander Abhijit Singh, Head, Maritime Policy Initiative, Observer Research Foundation (ORF), and Dr. Pooja Bhatt, Consultant, Ministry of External Affairs and Researcher on Maritime Security and Governance. The Internal Discussants were Ms. Ruchita Beri, Consultant, Africa, Latin America, Caribbean, & UN (ALACUN) Centre, MP-IDSA, and Cmde. Abhay K. Singh, Research Fellow & Coordinator, Southeast Asia and Oceania Centre, MP-IDSA.

Executive Summary

The development of a maritime security agenda for African countries has been relatively new, despite the continent being completely surrounded by water. Following the emergence of the scourge of piracy off the coast of Somalia, African countries and international actors started to pay due attention to ensuring maritime security. Although armed robbery at sea has sensitised the countries of Africa and the international community to the threats in the African maritime domain (AMD), an overemphasis on piracy and armed robbery has skewed perceptions about the African maritime landscape. The challenges today are much broader, and the resultant strategies employed by African countries go beyond tackling piracy. Thus, in the present time, African maritime strategies tend to focus on the common interests of wealth creation and sustainable governance.

Detailed Report

Dr. Mishra’s research explored the potential of the “blue economy” or “blue growth” approach in mitigating maritime crime in African waters. He also examined the evolution of maritime security within the African context over the past two decades.

Previously neglected, Dr. Mishra argued that Africa’s colonial past fostered a “sea blindness,” hindering a focus on maritime security. He emphasised the ambiguity of the term “maritime security,” highlighting the varying interpretations by Till (2018) with hard and soft security distinctions, Bueger’s (2015) constructivist approach with the Maritime Security Matrix, and Siebels’ (2020) “Tale of Two Regions” incorporating positive and negative definitions.

He further underscored the criticality of Africa’s maritime sector. Firstly, 38 out of 54 African territories are island nations or coastal states. Secondly, Africa boasts a vast coastline exceeding 26,000 nautical miles. Finally, the number and capabilities of actors threatening the African Maritime Domain (AMD) are continuously rising. These factors necessitate a commensurate response at national, regional, and continental levels.

Moreover, while explaining the threats and vulnerabilities of the African Maritime Domain (AMD), he categorised them into three main areas. Governance issues encompass illicit fishing, marine pollution, illegal oil bunkering, and crude oil theft. Security concerns include armed robbery, piracy, and trafficking in weapons, drugs, and wildlife. Finally, humanitarian assistance needs encompass Search and Rescue (SAR), Humanitarian Assistance/Disaster Relief (HA/DR), and out-of-area emergencies.

He then highlighted the Stable Seas Maritime Security Index, which ranks nations based on nine criteria relevant to Africa, including global cooperation, legality, maritime safety, coastal well-being, the blue economy, fishing practices, piracy, illegal trade, and mixed migration via sea.

However, Dr. Mishra acknowledged the ongoing debate surrounding maritime security (MS) in Africa. He said that scholars grapple with a unified definition within the African context. Since 2005, the African Union (AU), Regional Economic Communities (RECs), and the African Union Commission (AUC) have actively discussed the African Maritime Domain (AMD) primarily in relation to piracy. The initial discourse revealed diverse interests and a complex web of African-international relationships. Notably, African RECs have collaborated with the United Nations, International Maritime Organization, and other nations.

He further emphasised Africa’s pre-existing engagement in maritime governance. By 2000, 37 African nations were already members of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), and the continent had a maritime transit charter established in 1993. Additionally, African countries ratified key agreements like the 1974 SOLAS Convention (safety of life at sea) and the 2004 ISPS Code (security of ships and port facilities).

The 2000 International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR) provided the foundation for the first pan-African initiatives to bolster SAR capabilities. Between 2007 and 2011, five Maritime Rescue Coordination Centers (MRCCs) and twenty-six sub-centers were established in strategic locations like Mombasa, Cape Town, Lagos, Monrovia, and Rabat.

Dr. Mishra also highlighted the significance of informal gatherings and conferences fostering maritime cooperation since 2005. These include the IMO-sponsored Sea Power for Africa Symposium (SPAS), the U.S. Naval Command’s East Africa and Southwest Indian Ocean Maritime Security Conference (EASWIO), and the Indian Navy’s Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS), alongside regional meetings in Sana’a, Muscat, and Dar es Salaam. The establishment of the Djibouti Code of Conduct (DCoC) in January 2009 marked a further step towards regional cooperation.

Moreover, Dr. Mishra made a distinction between the Yaoundé Code of Conduct (YCoC) and the Djibouti Code of Conduct (DCoC). Adopted in January 2009, the DCoC focuses on piracy and armed robbery suppression in the Western Indian Ocean and Gulf of Aden. Its core objective is to facilitate international cooperation through information sharing, training nitiatives, national legislation updates, and counter-piracy measures. The DCoC+, established through the 2017 Jeddah Amendment, addresses additional threats like illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing and human trafficking.

On the other hand, the YCoC, ratified in 2013 by 25 West and Central African nations, targets a broader range of illicit maritime activities in the Gulf of Guinea, including piracy, armed robbery, and IUU fishing. Information sharing is a central pillar, achieved through two regional centers: (i) Regional Centre for Maritime Security in Central Africa (CRESMAC) under the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) and (ii) the West Africa Regional Maritime Security Centre (CRESMAO) under the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).

Dr. Mishra highlighted key differences. The DCoC, designed from the outset to combat piracy on the high seas, actively seeks international assistance. Conversely, the YCoC prioritizes preserving signatory sovereignty. Additionally, the YCoC incorporates measures absent from the DCoC, such as seizing assets linked to illicit activities, mitigating IUU fishing, and addressing pollution prevention (a broader maritime concern beyond traditional security). Finally, the YCoC uses the term “signatories,” while the DCoC uses “participants.”

He moved on to explain Africa’s Integrated Maritime Strategy (AIM 2050) as a unified effort to revitalize the maritime sector for the continent’s development. AIM 2050 aims to leverage Africa’s waterways and oceans for the benefit of its maritime industries. Additionally, the African Union (AU) is fostering a maritime security community tailored to Africa’s unique needs, experiences, and practices.

He discussed the Lomé Charter, formally known as the African Charter on Maritime Security, Safety, and Development in Africa, signed in October 2016. It builds upon the AIM 2050 Strategy by transitioning maritime security in Africa from a “soft law” approach (non-binding guidelines) to a “hard law” approach with a legally binding treaty. This shift is in contrast to earlier instruments like the DCoC or AIM 2050. Notably, while 25 nations signed the Lomé Charter, only Benin, Senegal, and Togo have ratified it thus far.

In addition to that, he emphasised the AU’s focus on promoting sustainable utilization of Africa’s ocean resources. He terms the Blue Economy (BE) as the “new frontier for Africa’s renaissance,” highlighting its significance. The 2018 Sustainable Blue Economy Conference in Nairobi, Kenya, served as a key platform to discuss the applicability of the Blue Economy concept in Africa.

In conclusion, Dr. Abhishek acknowledged the mixed success of various community-based and government-led Blue Economy initiatives in Africa. He argued that social equity and ecological sustainability haven’t received the same level of attention as economic benefits. He emphasized that people are the foundation of any successful Blue Economy endeavour. For Africa’s Blue Economy development to thrive, it must prioritise social fairness, environmental preservation, and a robust institutional governance framework.

This was followed by Comments from the External Discussants.

Comments and Questions

Following Dr. Mishra’s presentation, the discussion shifted, with Cdr. Abhijit Singh emphasizing the value of the “sea blindness” concept in academic and policy circles. He linked national security postures to global commons management, highlighting how a state’s sea blindness or sea consciousness can impact its ability to address global maritime challenges. He argued that fragmented perspectives and challenges to coordination among African nations hinder effective action. He identified poverty and poor governance (extending to maritime domains) as key issues. He also mentioned CRESMAC and CRESMAO as maritime information centers focused on West and Central Africa. He made the case that we have to identify the challenges facing Africa’s marine sector and provide a targeted set of solutions. He stated that the lack of an Indian policy perspective in the study is the sole area of concern. Lastly, he said it is essential to assess each of the instruments mentioned above closely.

Dr. Pooja Bhatt then offered insights on Africa’s evolving maritime approach. She noted a shift from the basic needs (food, security, and resources) to complex issues like trade, the security of traditional and non-traditional rights, and the intricate legal and technical aspects of addressing these challenges. Moreover, she emphasised the importance of definitions in maritime security. Clear definitions help identify stakeholders and goals, facilitating collaboration. However, excessive focus on definitions can hinder progress. She commended the AU’s approach as a valuable model for regional cooperation on maritime security. Dr. Bhatt concluded by urging India to take a leadership role in establishing a dedicated maritime security office within the United Nations, advocating a collective vision from the Global South on maritime security.

This was followed by Comments from the Internal Discussants.

Ms. Ruchita Beri highlighted the historical perception of land as a place to reside and the sea as a passage. This perspective shapes how power and security are traditionally viewed, often neglecting the maritime domain. She pointed to the Berlin Conference’s impact on Africa, where colonial powers focused on land wealth and used the seas for resource extraction, neglecting maritime security concerns. She went on to point out the various narratives developed in maritime security, shaped by African think tanks and academics. She urged Dr. Mishra to delve into questions pertaining to the root causes of the conduct of the African nations and the persistence of the problems in the region.

Cmde. Abhay Kumar Singh cautioned against a singular view of African maritime security. He identified two key schools of thought within Africa and argued that security is not solely about laws and standards. Power, strategy, and wealth are crucial elements for effective maritime security, and Africa’s challenges in these areas contribute to its maritime insecurity. He asked Dr. Mishra to elaborate on a postmodernist viewpoint, focusing on the rationale for the existence of this information and the reasons behind the state of affairs.

This was followed by Comments from the Floor.

Director General, Amb. Sujan R. Chinoy stated that the whole issue is being explored without delving into the essential question of what it is about Africa’s economic growth that genuinely shapes its marine environment. There is undoubtedly substantial economic hardship that exists in the littoral regions, which extends to the marine environment and vice versa. Furthermore, as an Indian researcher studying the topic, he asked Dr. Mishra to consider the Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) and expand on what specific aspect of the G20 proclamation seems to have been tailored specifically for today’s theme.

When the house was opened for questions, a question regarding Africa’s opposition to Western-led security formations was raised. The panelists responded by highlighting China’s growing role in African security, noting the 2023 China-Africa Security Forum as a point of geopolitical interest to India.

Vice Admiral Satishkumar Namdeo Ghormade concluded the discussion by emphasising the strategic significance of Africa’s resources and location. He attributed the continent’s vulnerability to a lack of technology, defensive forces, and the multitude of challenges it faces.

The Report was prepared by Ms. Anusha Khurana, Intern, ALACUN Centre, MP-IDSA.